Encyclopedia
Articles
Long-form educational entries. Featured pieces sit on the homepage; this index is the full set.
fusion basics
Why it Works?
In small atoms, from hydrogen to sodium, the binding energy per nucleon increases with an increasing atomic number. This is because each additional nucleon is attracted by other nearby nucleons, and thus more tightly bound to the whole.
5 min read
fusion basics
How it Works?
In normal conditions, atom nuclei don't fuse spontaneously. The nucleus is positively charged and electrostatic forces will repel each other long before they come so close that strong nuclear forces can start to act and bind nuclei together.
5 min read
fusion basics
Fusion Fuel
All light elements and their isotopes could be used as a fusion fuel, but when talking about the use of nuclear fusion as source of energy and electricity, some types of fuel are more suitable than others.
5 min read
fusion basics
Fusion in Stars
The only functioning fusion reactor in our solar system is the Sun. Our central star, weighting 1,9 × 10´30 kg (more than 330,000 Earth masses) burns 500 million metric tons of hydrogen in its core every second at temperatures of about 15,7 million kelvin.
5 min read
fusion basics
Lawson Criterion
John D. Lawson wondered what conditions need to be fulfilled in order to get enough energy from a fusion reaction to use it in a power plant.
5 min read
fusion basics
Plasma
To enable thermonuclear fusion, the matter has to be heated to several million kelvin. But what will happen to such incredibly hot substances?
5 min read
fusion basics
How to Measure the Temperature in the Core of the Sun? or Diagnostics
Measuring the properties of something with extremely high temperatures like fusion plasma is difficult because every type of measuring device inserted into such a hostile environment will be instantly turned into plasma.
5 min read
tokamaks
Magnetic Confinement
Charged particles follow magnetic field lines. Tokamaks and stellarators twist those lines into a torus so plasma cannot leak out too quickly.
8 min read
tokamaks
Tokamaks
The word "tokamak" is of Russian origin and means "toroidal chamber and magnetic coils." This magnetic confinement system holds plasma in magnetic fields of toroidal shape. The first tokamak, the T-1, started operation in 1958 in Russia, and since then the greatest advances in th
16 min read
tokamaks
Material for Magnetic Coils
The word "tokamak" is of Russian origin and means "toroidal chamber and magnetic coils." This magnetic confinement system holds plasma in magnetic fields of toroidal shape. The first tokamak, the T-1, started operation in 1958 in Russia, and since then the greatest advances in th
5 min read
tokamaks
Divertor
The word "tokamak" is of Russian origin and means "toroidal chamber and magnetic coils." This magnetic confinement system holds plasma in magnetic fields of toroidal shape. The first tokamak, the T-1, started operation in 1958 in Russia, and since then the greatest advances in th
5 min read
tokamaks
External Heating
The word "tokamak" is of Russian origin and means "toroidal chamber and magnetic coils." This magnetic confinement system holds plasma in magnetic fields of toroidal shape. The first tokamak, the T-1, started operation in 1958 in Russia, and since then the greatest advances in th
5 min read
tokamaks
Most Important Tokamaks in the World
The word "tokamak" is of Russian origin and means "toroidal chamber and magnetic coils." This magnetic confinement system holds plasma in magnetic fields of toroidal shape. The first tokamak, the T-1, started operation in 1958 in Russia, and since then the greatest advances in th
12 min read
stellarators
Stellarators
Stellarators are "generators of stellar energy", and their principle was discovered before tokamaks. A helical-twisted magnetic field, necessary for successful plasma confinement, is generated only by magnetic coils of various shapes. The stellarator is a device capable of contin
14 min read
stellarators
Most Important Stellarators in the World
Wendelstein 7-X + Large Helical Device + Helically Symmetric eXperiment
8 min read
inertial
Inertial Confinement Fusion
The inertial confinement fusion principle attempts to compress a small deuterium-tritium pellet to the density and temperature required for fusion ignition in its center. The reaction will then take place before the pellet remnants are blown apart, so the fusion plasma is held…
16 min read
iter
The Next Step on the Way Toward a Thermonuclear Fusion Power Plant
In the beginning of the 20th century, the potential energy of the atom was discovered.
3 min read
iter
ITER Magnets, Vessel, and Blanket
ITER combines superconducting magnets, a massive vacuum vessel, a cryostat, and plasma-facing blankets.
5 min read
fusion history
A Short History of Fusion Research
From 1920s stellar physics to tokamaks, stellarators, lasers, and ITER — fusion research is a century of unfinished engineering.
8 min read
fusion plants
Toward a Fusion Power Plant
A fusion power plant would need tritium breeding, materials that survive neutrons, and a thermal cycle — none of which is demonstrated as a complete system.
5 min read
fusion basics
Fusion: Key Ideas
A compact recap of fuels, confinement, ITER, and what remains unsolved.
5 min read
nuclear power
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a natural phenomenon. Unstable atom nuclei release particles: helium nuclei (alpha); electrons or positrons (beta); photons (gamma).
5 min read
nuclear power
Ionising Radiation
Ionizing radiation can be classified into alpha, beta, gamma, X-rays, and neutrons, while cosmic radiation is composed primarily of high-energy protons.
4 min read
radiation
Natural and Human-Made Radiation
Background radiation is unavoidable. Medicine, industry, and nuclear energy add further doses that are managed differently.
6 min read
nuclear power
Half-life
A half-life is a period after which half of the radioactive material has decayed. The half-life of isotopes is used in medicine or radiocarbon dating.
3 min read
nuclear power industry
Fission Chain Reaction
When a neutron splits the 235U nucleus, 2-3 neutrons are released. The fission chain reaction occurs when they split other nuclei, releasing more neutrons.
3 min read
nuclear power industry
Control and Reaction States
The chain fission reaction in a nuclear reactor is controlled by the neutron absorber content. The reactor can be subcritical, critical, or supercritical.
3 min read
fission physics
Coolant and Moderator
The coolant removes heat. The moderator slows neutrons. Sometimes they are the same fluid.
8 min read
nuclear fuel
Fuel Production
Uranium ore is turned into U3O8 (yellowcake) or UF6 (hex), enriched up to 3—5% of 235U, and as a UO2 compressed into pellets inserted into zircalloy tubes.
3 min read
nuclear fuel
Fuel Enrichment
Enrichment is a physical process that raises the concentration of the 235U isotope to 3—5%. Gaseous diffusion, centrifuges, or laser excitation are used.
4 min read
nuclear fuel
Interim Storage
Spent fuel is first stored in water pools near the reactor to be cooled. Then it is moved to dry interim storage, located usually on-site.
3 min read
nuclear fuel
Reprocessing
Spent fuel can be reprocessed. Extracted uranium and plutonium can be used for MOX or uranium fuel production. The remaining waste is vitrified.
4 min read
nuclear fuel
Final Repositories
The highly radioactive vitrified waste in special leak-tight flasks will be stored for thousands of years in a deep underground final repository.
3 min read
nuclear reactors
Gas-cooled Reactor (GCR) and Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR)
Gas cooled reactors (GCR), used in Japan and the UK, use graphite as a moderator and pressurized CO2 as a coolant. It is a double-circuit power plant.
3 min read
nuclear reactors
RBMK Type Reactor
The Soviet RBMK reactor uses graphite as a moderator and light water, that boils in the channels, as a coolant. Chernobyl reactor was of RBMK type.
3 min read
nuclear reactors
High Temperature Reactor (HTGR)
In a High Temperature Gas-cooled Reactor (HTGR), the highly enriched uranium spheres are dispersed in graphite (moderator) balls. Helium is a coolant.
3 min read
nuclear reactors
Reactor Using Fast Neutrons (FR)
A reactor using fast neutron (FR) burns a mixture of uranium and plutonium. Fast breeder reactors (FBR) produce more plutonium than they consume.
3 min read
safety
INES and Nuclear Accidents
The International Nuclear Event Scale ranks events. Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima are the reference severe accidents.
6 min read
nuclear fuel
Fuel Assembly
There are different types of nuclear fuel. A typical fuel assembly for PWR consists of fuel rods, long cylinders of zircaloy filled with UO2 pellets.
4 min read
nuclear fuel
Fuel Cycle
In a closed fuel cycle, spent nuclear fuel (used fuel removed from a reactor) is reprocessed. In an open cycle, it is stored in interim storage.
4 min read
nuclear power industry
Principle of Operation
The binding energy that holds nucleons together is different for each isotope. When fusing light nuclei or splitting heavy nuclei, energy is released.
3 min read
nuclear reactors
The First Reactor
The first fission reactor was Chicago Pile No. 1, constructed by Enrico Fermi (2.12.1942). The first experimental nuclear power plant was the EBR-1.
3 min read
nuclear reactors
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
The pressurized water reactor (PWR) uses light water at a pressure of 15.7 MPa as a coolant. Steam in the secondary circuit propels the turbine.
3 min read
nuclear reactors
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
In a boiling water reactor (BWR), the water boils directly inside the reactor. Dried steam propels the turbogenerator. It is a single-circuit power plant.
3 min read
nuclear reactors
Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)
The pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR) uses natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as coolant and moderator. Most of them are of the CANDU type.
3 min read
nuclear reactors
Small Modular Reactors
Inside a nuclear reactor, a fission reaction takes place. Released energy is removed by coolant and used to generate electricity. A common reactor is PWR.
16 min read
radioactive waste
Radioactive Waste
Radioactive waste is classified as low-level, intermediate-level, or high-level; as solid, gaseous, or liquid. Each type needs different handling.
3 min read
nuclear plant safety
The Safety of Nuclear Power Plants
Safety is an important aspect of nuclear power plants. Safe operation and fuel handling have to be ensured to reduce the risk of a nuclear accident.
3 min read
water energy
Types of Hydroelectric Power Plants
The hydroelectric power plants can be divided into accumulation ones with a reservoir, run-of-the river without a dam, derivational, and pumped-storage.
3 min read
water energy
Dams and Reservoirs
The dams create water reservoirs for hydro power plants, to prevent floods or to collect drinking water. Typical dams are gravity or concrete arch dams.
3 min read
water energy
Tidal Energy and Sea Wave Power
Tidal power plants use ebb-tide energy from turbines in the dam enclosing a tidal basin, while tidal stream generators are turbines anchored to the seabed.
3 min read
water energy
Marine Current Power and Ocean Thermal Energy
Energy contained in ocean currents can be exploited by various underwater turbines or by an OTEC system that uses ocean temperature differences.
3 min read
water energy
Environmental Impact of Hydropower
The construction of a hydroelectric power plant affects a large area ecosystem and often leads to people's relocation. Then a new balance is established.
3 min read
wind energy
Types of Wind Turbines
The wind turbines can have a vertical axis, which is the majority of installations, or a horizontal axis like the Darrieus or Savonius turbines.
5 min read
wind energy
Wind Turbines and the Environment
A wind power plants produce no emissions or waste, could be a source of noise or strobe effect, are a distinctive landmark, and require large areas.
3 min read
csp
Concentrating Solar Power
Mirrors concentrate sunlight to make heat, then electricity — sometimes after storing the heat.
6 min read
solar energy
Solar Collectors
Solar thermal collectors can use air or water (flat-plate collectors) as a heat transfer medium. Vacuum insulation is used in evacuated tube collectors.
5 min read
egs
Enhanced Geothermal Systems
EGS tries to mine heat from hot rock that does not already contain a commercial hydrothermal reservoir.
6 min read
biomass energy
Biofuels
The solid biomass can be in the form of logs or pellets. Liquid biofuels can be alcohol-based or bio-diesel. Gaseous biofuels can be biogas or hydrogen.
6 min read
renewable future hub
The future of renewable energy sources
Human society needs energy to grow and energy consumption increases every year. One has to think not only about the meeting of current demand, but also about a sustainable energetics concept that will secure sufficient energy supplies in the future as well. Fossil fuel deposit…
6 min read
grid
Transmission and Distribution
High-voltage lines move bulk power; distribution lines serve customers. Both must stay in balance.
6 min read
electrochemical
Batteries on the Grid
Lithium-ion batteries provide fast, short-duration storage. They are not a universal substitute for generation.
6 min read
fuel cells
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells convert chemical energy to electricity without a combustion flame.
6 min read
grid
Decentralized Electricity
Generation is no longer only a few large plants. Rooftop solar, CHP, and batteries change power-system architecture.
6 min read
hydro basics
Hydropower
Falling or flowing water turns turbines. It is the oldest large-scale renewable electricity source still expanding in some regions.
8 min read
turbines
Francis, Kaplan, and Pelton Turbines
Three classic machines cover most hydraulic heads used in hydroelectric plants.
8 min read
wind basics
Wind Energy
Uneven solar heating drives winds. Turbines intercept a fraction of that kinetic energy.
7 min read
turbines
How Wind Turbines Work
Lift on aerofoil blades produces torque. A generator and power electronics feed the grid.
8 min read
solar basics
Solar Energy
The solar resource is vast. Engineering is about converting a variable, dilute flux into useful heat or electricity.
7 min read
solar energy
The Energy Use of the Photovoltaic Effect
When a photon with an energy of up to 1.12 eV hits a semiconductor, an electron is released. This photovoltaic effect is used in solar panels.
5 min read
hydrothermal
Geothermal Energy
Heat beneath our feet can make electricity or warm buildings where geology cooperates.
8 min read
biomass energy
Biomass
Solar energy is conserved in plants into carbon bonds during photosynthesis. The biomass is divided into phytomass, dendromass, and zoomass.
3 min read
generation
How Electricity Is Generated
Most electricity still comes from spinning generators. Inverters now add solar, wind, and batteries to the mix.
8 min read
grid
What Is a Smart Grid?
A smart grid is a power system that can see itself and respond — sensors, communications, and control on top of copper and steel.
8 min read
mechanical
Why Energy Storage Matters
Electricity is consumed as it is made unless something stores it. Storage technologies differ by duration and efficiency.
8 min read
mechanical
Pumped-Storage Hydropower
Two reservoirs and a reversible plant make the largest form of grid electricity storage in many countries.
7 min read
carriers
Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier
Hydrogen stores energy that was already paid for in electricity or fossil fuel. It is a medium, not a mine.
8 min read
fusion basics
Artificial Fusion Principles
The Lawson criterion gives essentially two ways how to harness an effective fusion reaction.
5 min read
iter
Main Parameters
The ITER is an experimental device designed to demonstrate the possibility of harnessing energy from thermonuclear fusion.
3 min read
iter
Timeline
From 1985 to 2050 ...
3 min read
iter
Record Breakers
Being the largest tokamak ever built, the ITER is a record holder in many ways.
3 min read
iter
Magnets
The ITER magnet system will be the largest and most integrated superconducting magnet system ever built. It will produce magnetic fields that will initiate, confine, shape and control the ITER plasma.
5 min read
iter
Vacuum Vessel
Plasma will be held inside a steel torus called a vacuum vessel. It was proven that the bigger the plasma volume, the better the confinement, so the ITER vacuum vessel will be really big.
3 min read
iter
Blanket
Blanket protects vacuum vessel from harsh conditions provided by fusion plasma. Because the vessel cannot be replaced, any damage to it will incur would cause termination of experiments.
3 min read
iter
Divertor
For a successful fusion reaction only the presence of fuel (deuterium and tritium in the case of ITER) in the plasma core is needed; all other particles, whether impurities or helium ash, are unwanted and need to be diverted away from the plasma, because they could cause energ…
3 min read
iter
Cryostat
During ITER operation the 150 million kelvin hot plasma core will be just a few meters away from only 4 Kelvin cold toroidal magnetic coils.
3 min read
iter
Tritium Production
The ITER machine will be the first thermonuclear reactor fully designed to operate with deuterium-tritium fusion reaction.
4 min read
iter
Cooling
Tokamak ITER operation would not be possible without several types of cooling methods, because heat generated by fusion must be discarded.
3 min read
iter
Diagnostics
The main goal of the ITER is not to just create fusion plasma but to get as much information about such plasma as possible.
4 min read
iter
External Heating
Successful deuterium-tritium fusion reaction requires 150 million Kelvin, a temperature that is not easy to reach.
3 min read
iter
The ITER Site
The ITER 180-hectare site is located near Saint Paul-lez-Durance, southern France.
3 min read
iter
Disruptions and Instabilities
Plasma never behaves calmly and shortly after its creation begins to show an assortment of instabilities.
3 min read
nuclear power
Natural Sources
Natural sources of radioactivity can be found in the air, soil, cosmic rays, or humans. The annual dose received from them is called "natural background".
4 min read
nuclear power
Man-made Sources
Man-made radioactivity sources are mostly used in medicine for diagnostics and treatment. Coal and nuclear plants produce radioactive waste.
4 min read
nuclear power
Decay Series
Unstable isotopes decay in four decay series (thorium, neptunium, uranium, actinium) into other radionuclides and finally into stable atoms.
3 min read
nuclear power
Quantities and Units
The radioactivity and its effects are measured by detectors and dosimeters (activity in becquerels, dose in grays, equivalent dose in sieverts).
4 min read
nuclear power
Effects of Ionising Radiation
Ionising radiation could change material properties. In living tissue, it could damage DNA and lead to cell death. This is used in tumor treatment.
3 min read
nuclear power
Radiation Doses and Activities
A chart of the radioactivity of various objects (e.g., nuts or coal) and the doses produced by some activities (like eating bananas or visiting Chernobyl).
3 min read
nuclear power
Nuclear Power Summary
Nuclear energy originates from the makeup of the atom. Ionizing radiation caused by decay of the atom nuclei is a natural part of our environment.
17 min read
nuclear power industry
Types of Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear reactions can lead to scattering, capture, or splitting depending on neutron velocity. So-called "slow" neutrons (0.02 eV) can split 235U nuclei.
3 min read
nuclear power industry
Moderator
To increase the chance of fission, the moderator slows down neutrons by collisions. The usual moderators are water, heavy water, and graphite.
3 min read
nuclear power industry
Absorber
The absorber (boron, cadmium) captures the neutrons and thus regulates the nuclear reactor output. It can be part of the coolant or control rods.
3 min read
nuclear power industry
Coolant
The coolant removes heat from the fission reaction. The most commonly used is water, but also helium, CO2, molten sodium, lead, or fluoride salts are used.
3 min read
nuclear power industry
Fission Products
After fission, the uranium nucleus decays into two approximately equal halves. Typical products are iodine and cesium, but other ways of decay exist.
3 min read
nuclear power industry
The Largest Nuclear Power Plants
In 2012, there were 436 reactors in use worldwide. The largest nuclear power plant is Japan's Kashiwazaki Kariwa with 7,965 MW of installed power output.
3 min read
nuclear fuel
Transportation
Fresh fuel, yellowcake or uranium ore are transported normally, while highly radioactive materials like spent fuel are transported in special flasks.
3 min read
nuclear reactors
The Nuclear Power Plant — How it Works
Inside the nuclear power plant reactor, a controlled fission reaction takes place. Heat removed by coolant is used to produce steam to propel the turbine.
5 min read
nuclear reactors
The Future of Fission Reactors
Several types of Generation IV reactors are under development: fast reactors cooled by lead, molten salts, or sodium; HTGR, or supercritical water reactor.
4 min read
radioactive waste
Production of Radioactive Waste
Radioactive waste, produced in medicine or industry, is low-level or intermediate-level waste. Spent nuclear fuel is high-level radioactive waste.
3 min read
radioactive waste
Types of Radioactive Waste
The radioactive waste is classified by radioisotope content, activity level (low, intermediate, high-level), or state (solid, gas, liquid).
4 min read
radioactive waste
The Processing of Radioactive Waste
Liquid radioactive waste can be evaporated, filtered, biocleaned or flocculated. Solid waste can be pressed, incinerated, vitrified or fixed in synrock.
5 min read
radioactive waste
The Disposal of Radioactive Waste
For radioactive waste with short-lived isotopes, a surface repository is sufficient, while long-lived isotopes must be isolated in a deep repository.
3 min read
nuclear plant safety
Nuclear Safety
Nuclear safety is the ability of a nuclear facility to keep the fission process and resulting radioactive products always under control.
3 min read
nuclear plant safety
Safety Systems
The safety of nuclear power plants is ensured by inherent safety measures that rely on physical laws, bariers, and systems redundancy.
8 min read
nuclear plant safety
External Hazards
The nuclear power plant has to withstand terrorist attack, operator error, system malfunction, or natural disasters like floods, earthquakes, or tsunami.
3 min read
nuclear plant safety
INES Scale
INES, the international nuclear and radiological event scale from 1 to 7, is used to clearly communicate the severity of a nuclear accident.
4 min read
nuclear plant safety
Nuclear Accidents
In the nuclear power industry, only three large accidents have occurred: Three Mile Island (1979), Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima Daiichi (2011).
15 min read
nuclear plant safety
International Nuclear Organizations
There are several organizations supervising the nuclear power industry, like the International Atomic Energy Agency or the World Nuclear Association.
3 min read
nuclear plant safety
Nuclear Power Plants and the Environment
Nuclear power plants are safe and clean. They release no CO2 or emissions. Almost all of their waste is in solid form, albeit highly radioactive.
3 min read
water energy
The Physical Properties of Water
Water is a chemical compound made from one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms. At normal conditions, it is a colourless, clear, and odourless liquid.
3 min read
water energy
The Origin of Water Energy
The Sun warms surface water and evaporates it. After condensation, the water falls on the land with exploitable potential energy relative to ocean level.
3 min read
water energy
History of Water Energy Utilization
The energy of water was used since ancient times for grinding grain or irrigation. Later it powered mills or hammers, and finally a turbine was invented.
3 min read
water energy
Water Energy and Its Uses
The amount of available water energy, kinetic and potential, depends on hydrologic potential, mostly on hydraulic head and flow rate.
3 min read
water energy
The Highest Dams and Largest Reservoirs
The highest dam is the 305 m high, concrete arch-shaped Jinping-I dam in China. The largest reservoir is Lake Kariba in Zambezi, with a volume of 180 km3.
3 min read
water energy
The Segner Wheel
The Segner wheel was an important step on the way to modern turbines. Its principle is today used in rotating irrigation sprinkler systems.
3 min read
water energy
Francis Turbine
The Francis turbine has a radial-axial design, variable pitch guide vanes, and fixed runner blades. The largest one has a diameter of 10 m.
3 min read
water energy
Kaplan Turbine
The Kaplan reaction water turbine with adjustable blades, invented in 1918, is used in places with minimal heads and relatively high, variable flow rates.
3 min read
water energy
Pelton Turbine
The Pelton turbine is an isobaric impulse action turbine. The water jet is directed tangentially at the spoon-shaped buckets on the runner.
3 min read
water energy
Choosing a turbine (Turbine selection graph)
The turbine selection graph helps to select the best turbine type for the given hydraulic head and rate of flow.
3 min read
water energy
Hydroelectric Power Plant Operating Principles
In hydroelectric power plants, the water propels the turbine blades, and the generator transforms the energy of a rotating turbine shaft into electricity.
3 min read
water energy
The Largest Hydroelectric Power Plants in the World
The largest hydroelectric dams in the world are the "Three Gorges Dam" in China, Itaipú Dam and Guri Dam in South America.
4 min read
wind energy
The Energy of Flowing Air
The movement of air masses between two differently warm places is called a wind. Most wind turbines reach their maximum output at a wind speed of 15 m/s.
3 min read
wind energy
The Beaufort Wind Force Scale
The Beaufort Wind Force Scale, originally from 0 to 12, helps to estimate the force of the wind by observation of its effects.
3 min read
wind energy
The History of Wind Power Utilization
The ancient wind mills powered irrigation pumps or ground grain. Since 1887, wind power has been used for electricity production in wind turbines.
3 min read
wind energy
Wind Power Plants
The wind power plants are on the drag principle (historic windmills) or the lift principle (modern turbines). A horizontal or vertical axis is used.
3 min read
wind energy
Wind Turbine and its Working Principle
The wind turbine transforms the kinetic energy of the flowing air into rotational movements of the rotor blades, which turns the generator.
3 min read
wind energy
The Largest Wind Farms
The largest onshore wind farm is Roscoe, Texas, USA, with 627 turbines, while the largest offshore wind farm is Thanet, UK, with 100 turbines.
3 min read
solar energy
Solar Rays Energy
Solar energy comes from the Sun, where fusion reactions take place. Solar radiation falls on Earth. Part is reflected into space, the rest is absorbed.
5 min read
solar energy
Ways to Use Solar Heat
Solar rays can heat greenhouses or water in thermal collectors. The energy from the parabolic trough collector can drive machinery or produce electricity.
8 min read
solar energy
Solar Concentrators
A parabolic dish collector concentrates sun rays into one focal point. A temperature of up to 700°C could be reached and used by the Stirling engine.
3 min read
solar energy
Central Tower Solar Power Plants
In the central tower solar power plant, flat mirrors, heliostats, concentrate sun rays on the top of the tower where heat-transfer medium is heated.
3 min read
solar energy
Solar Farms
A parabolic trough collector is a parabolic mirror concentrating sun rays onto a tube with heat-transfer medium. Collectors are connected to large farms.
3 min read
solar energy
The Largest Solar Power Plants
The largest thermal solar power plant is the parabolic trough collector type farm SEGS in the Mohave Desert, USA, with 354 MW of installed capacity.
3 min read
solar energy
Photovoltaic Farms
Photovoltaic farms produce electricity from sunlight in many solar panels. The largest photovoltaic farm is Montalto di Castro, Italy (84.2 MW output).
3 min read
solar energy
Solar Energy and the Environment
The solar farm produces electricity without noise or pollutants. The negative impact is the high energetic and financial costs of solar cell production.
3 min read
solar energy
Solar Energy and Solar Power Systems Summary
The energy coming from the Sun is vital for life on Earth and can be used in various ways for electricity and heat production.
20 min read
geothermal energy
Heat from the Earth's Core
Earth is composed of a crust, mantle, and core that is about 5000 °C hot. The edges of lithospheric plates are suitable for geothermal power plants.
3 min read
geothermal energy
Geothermal Phenomena
In places with high geothermal energy levels, geysers (springs that burst out water and steam), hot springs, fumaroles, and mud pots can be observed.
3 min read
geothermal energy
Mankind and the Energy from the Earth
Early geothermal energy utilization was in spas. The first electricity-producing geothermal power plant was built in Larderello, Italy, in 1911.
3 min read
geothermal energy
Geothermal Systems
To exploit various geological conditions, these geothermal systems can be used: Hot water, Water and steam, Hot dry rock, Pressurized liquid or Magma.
4 min read
geothermal energy
Geothermal Power Plant
Three types of geothermal power plants are Dry steam, Flash steam, and Binary cycle. The world's largest geothermal power plant is Cerro Prieto, Mexico.
5 min read
geothermal energy
Environmental Impact
Water and vapour released from geothermal power plant can contain impurities (e.g. carbon dioxide, ammonia, or mercury) that can pollute the environment.
3 min read
biomass energy
Types and Processing of Biomass
Biomass suitable for combustion is wood, agriculture waste, or energetic plants, often in the form of chips or pellets. Liquid biomass could be fermented.
5 min read
biomass energy
Available Technology of Biomass
The biomass can be combusted or turned into other forms of fuel by gasification, pyrolysis, esterification, anaerobic digestion, or alcoholic fermentation.
4 min read
biomass energy
Biomass Power Plants
Biomass power plants use biomass or fuels made from it in the Rankine cycle with a classic or gas turbine. Some use reciprocating combustion engines.
3 min read
biomass energy
Biomass and the Environment
The biomass is considered CO₂ neutral. During its combustion, some pollutants are released, depending on the type of biomass and temperature of combustion.
3 min read
renewable future
Rapid development of energy consumption
The human population and its energy consumption are growing rapidly. As renewables still develop too slowly, fossil fuel will be part of the energy mix.
6 min read
renewable future
The Future of Solar Energy
Solar power is one of the fastest-growing renewable energy sources. Large farms as well as integrated photovoltaics in the cities are being built.
5 min read
renewable future
The Future of Hydro Energy
Hydropower will grow most in countries with unused hydrologic potential, with an important role in energy storage. Tidal and wave energy use will grow.
3 min read
renewable future
The Future of Renewable Energy Sources
Wind turbines will grow offshore, connected via HVDC to the super-grid. Biofuel production will rise. Waste, GM plants, and bacteria will be exploited.
5 min read
renewable future
Development of Renewable Sources
The rate of development of renewable energy sources will depend on many factors: funds, their competitiveness, and the growth of energy consumption.
3 min read